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Functional testing is conducted by applying specific inputs to the PCB and measuring the outputs to compare against expected results. Test equipment may include signal generators, power supplies, and measurement devices, configured according to the PCB's operational specifications.

Manufacturing testing methods detect defects such as solder shorts, opens, missing or incorrect components, misalignments, and faulty connections.

MDA testing is limited to detecting physical and basic electrical defects. It cannot assess component functionality, circuit performance under power, or complex issues like timing errors.

The EOL (End of Line) test process involves performing final quality and functionality checks on products at the last stage of the manufacturing line. It ensures products meet all specifications before shipment.

Environmental stress refers to extreme conditions a product might encounter during its lifecycle, including temperature variations, humidity, vibration, and shock. These conditions can reveal hidden weaknesses in the product's design or manufacturing.

Desiccants in PCB packaging absorb moisture, preventing condensation and corrosion on the PCB during shipping and storage, thus preserving its functionality and longevity

Customs clearance and duties involve the process and fees associated with the importation of goods across international borders. Duties are taxes imposed on imports, and clearance involves adhering to all legal and regulatory requirements set by the importing country.

Tracking and tracing of shipments are facilitated by carriers through unique tracking numbers assigned to each shipment. These allow both the sender and recipient to monitor the shipment's progress, location, and estimated delivery time online or via carrier apps.

Rapid prototyping is a method used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) data. It's essential for validating design and functionality before mass production.

Technologies in rapid prototyping include 3D printing, selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM), and stereolithography (SLA).